Scale and Geologic Time Lab Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Scale and Geologic Time Lab - Assignment Example This time to count to one hundred is your human timescale. The time elapsed while you counted to one hundred was probably somewhere between 30 and 60seconds. This is a timescale that you can relate to, especially considered you just experienced it! You are familiar with this amount of time and you are comfortable with discussing events (like counting) that can occur over a period of 30 to 60 seconds. Now you are going to start converting the human scale to the geologic scale. For the purposes of this exercise, you are going to consider each 100 years along the timeline provided above as equivalent to the time it takes you to count to 100. So, counting to 100 equals the passage of 100 years. Lets convert our dates before present to counting times (fill in the blanks): This human scale is the amount of time you would have to count to reach the founding of the United States at your new scale. Now, perform these conversions for each of the other events on the timeline (fill in all the blanks): Remember, the human scale represents the number of seconds you would have to be counting to arrive at a given event. Most people consider the founding of the United States or the founding of Rome to have occurred a long time ago. How do these dates compare with the time between now and the first appearance of humans? Comparing these dates with the time when the first human occurred on the earth surface, there is a large difference since the first humans occurred approximately 100,000 years to present while United States and Rome were formed approximately 250 and 2750 years to present. The Cambrian explosion is estimated to have occurred approximately 540 million years to present while the earth is approximated to have been formed approximately 4,600,000,000 years to present. The difference in the length of time is quite large. Place humans within the perspective of Earths history? How does human history

Science , Magic and Witchcraft Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Science , Magic and Witchcraft - Essay Example There are several common or specific elements of a religion: the human being is closely overseen by the divinity, God knows all the good and bad deeds and in the end He awards or not the man, the Judgment day, the revival of the deaths, the belief in some saints,(Christianity, Islamism, Judaism), the caste system, the reincarnation(Hinduism), the holiness of man or woman and of all the world around us(Animism) .These rules or convictions may have a different echo in a man's mind. He may try to follow this set of laws , to make only good around him or he may be rebellious, he may seek to live after his conventions, and maybe in the end he will leave the respective religious system. The other extreme is when a believer might wait only the help of the saints , without acting by himself. In this case we talk about a false goal in life. There are cases when a belief in something or someone is misinterpreted and it leads to conflicts between societies(for example the terrorist attacks or t he interference of different countries in the political, religious, administrative systems of the other ones). Hinduism is perhaps the system that affects most an individual or the society. In this case the developing may be impossible to achieve. This belief has in its center the caste system and the reincarnation. So, an adept of this religion may struggle to do only good deeds, to raise , spiritually speaking , but he will always have the stigmata of his caste, which is the most important characteristic of a person. This type of belief affects a lot the society( people are not free to live according to their powers, marriages are arranged etc.) Animism declares that the human possesses soul that has life apart the body, before and after the death(the souls leave the human body during dreams or raise to heavens after death). Hindus believe that souls move up and down, and that they are stratified in a hierarchy. Ghosts are said to be the souls that haunts the livings. Ghosts have semi-corporal forms or may take different appearances. Imbedded, these definitions show the difference between a soul and a ghost. The latter is the unhappy or the unsatisfied soul that cannot leave this world and it is haunting between the spiritual and the material world. Souls transform into ghosts especially when a human being is murdered or suffers an injustice. The ghost is the restless soul that seeks to make justice after the death. The major religious systems have in their center the divinity seen as a male: Judaism and Christianity praise God and Jesus and Islamism pays tribute to Allah and Mohammad. These are monotheistic religions. Animism and Hinduism are polytheistic religions with god or goddesses. In the case of the monotheistic ones it is important to see how man and woman are treated. In the case of Muslims is known the fact that they treat woman in a negative way. On the paper she has many rights, but in practice much of those rights are forgotten. So, she has the to a career , but in many cases she stays home with the children or if she has a job she is attentively supervised by a relative. She must not have relations with other men or dress provocatively. If they divorce their husband takes the children(this is a very controversial thing, because this is seen by other cultures as a way of manipulating women). Of course some of these rules are found in other religions , but here are more severe and w ith real punishes. The Christianity also says

Analysis Of Three Poems English Literature Essay

Analysis Of Three Poems English Literature Essay The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to the present day. Poets from different countries created numerous outstanding works. Here are three poems Ive read which are of great reputation. They are My Mistress Eyes Are Nothing Like the Sun, The Red Wheelbarrow and How Do I Love Thee. The first poem was written by William Shakespeare who is a world famous writer. He is well-known not only for his plays especially tragedies, but also for his 154 sonnets. Not like most sonnet, just as you can find in the title, it depicted a different lady who is not so beautiful. This poem is number 130 out of the 154 sonnets, so we can call it Sonnet 130. It is William Carlos Williams who wrote the second poem. What interesting is his primary occupation was as a family doctor and writing poems was his off-hour hobby, but I believe he is much more succeeded in poetry than as a doctor. The Red Wheelbarrow is a traditional American poetry which is so much different from a sonnet. It is often considered as the masterwork of American 20th-century, although it is the shortest poem I have ever known. The third poet is Elizabeth Barrett Browning, who was one of the most prominent poets of the Victorian era. This is Sonnet XLIII in Sonnets from the Portuguese. Its also a sonnet, but it is in the model of Italy which is popularized by Petrarch. This means the third poem and the first one have great differences. Because of these widely different poems, the world of poetry can be so splendid and vibrant. And I am now going to analyze these three different poems in the aspects of satire, image and theme. When reference satire, we cannot ignore the Shakespeares sonnet number 130, which is a successful poem that effectively use satire to convey a sincere theme while maintaining sonnet structure, and using literary devices as a source of irony. Let me expound it from the beginning. The first quatrain illustrates the appearance of his lover. Her eyes are not beautiful, her lips are not so red, her breast are dun and her hair is bad. No one will think her beautiful, so do I. People who study sonnets are used to praises of beauty and extraordinary spirit yet, instead of introducing a surreal love interest Shakespeare begins his sonnet in such an unconventional method of satire. This ironic method completely overturns the traditional idea of sonnet and successfully hooks the reader. The next two quatrains continue describe how his lover is just a common woman. There is no flushed cheeks and no fragrance breath. Her voice is not like music and when she walks, treads on the ground. We all kno w the fact that conventionally metaphors and similes are used in love poems as a tool to express praise. But in this case, the speaker in sonnet 130 proves his love by depicting his lover that none of these metaphors or similes apply to her since they are exaggerations. In this way, the sonnet 130 enhances its theme by satire. Things change in last two sentences: And yet, by heaven, I think my love as rare; As any she belied with false compare. By abandoning literary devices for sincerity, Shakespeare concluded his poem. It makes me believe that sincerity and realism is worth more than false comparisons. And when the theme of the sonnet is concluded with sincere language like this, the readers, including me, then understands Shakespeares use of satire. To conclude, this poem satirizes the over-the-top descriptions that poets had traditionally used to praise womens beauty. Regarding to images in poem, no one can deny the fact The Red Wheelbarrow is one good example. In this poem, three images form a beautiful picture which is unforgettable and meaningful. The poem is so begins: So much depends/ upon/ a red wheel/ barrow. The first two lines look like a child discovered a miracle, and what followed on is the wheelbarrow, the first image. But the picture is so vague now. Then, it goes glazed  with  rain/ water. The second image here is water or rain and it shows that this scene is just after a rain. The last sentence beside  the  white/ chickens reveal the last image, the chickens. Just from the images, we found the poem begins from the abstract things (so much) to stationary object (wheelbarrow), then goes to moving object (rain), and ends with living animals (chickens). These images can simply sum up into from silence to vitality, which is a healthy and progressive development. Furthermore, we can draw a more specific picture if we notice the a djectives. The wheelbarrow is vividly because there is a word red to modify it. We can find the atmosphere so relaxed because the wheelbarrow is glazed with rain other than became dirty. It is said the chicken is white, which is opposite to the wheelbarrows red. In a sense, the imagery in the Williams poetry just like a colorful painting shows the picture of our daily life: an agrarian scene, most likely the yard of a farmhouse, where a wet red wheelbarrow stands among some white chickens. With a strong visual stimulation and the contrast of dynamic and static, this is no longer a simple poem that has only 4 clauses but an ingenious work which has brilliant images.

The Microraptor Fossil Discovery Sheds Light on the Evolution of Flight

The Microraptor Fossil Discovery Sheds Light on the Evolution of Flight A recent discovery in northeastern China might shine new light on the evolution of flight for birds. This has been a highly debated topic for some time, since scientists are uncertain if flight began in trees or on the ground. The recent discovery of the Microraptor gui may provide evidence for either side of this particular heated debate. The Microraptor is a small carnivorous dinosaur that has long feathers attached to the hind limbs, arms and tail. The feathered limbs are thought to be a â€Å"four-winged† gliding characteristic of the Microraptor. Given that the feathers were used for gliding instead of flying, this supports the theory that flight began in the trees and not on land. If so, this finding will be seen as a very important stage in the evolution of flight for a bird. The Microraptor fossil was discovered in the lakebeds of Liaoning, China. This finding has been proven to be that of a carnivorous vertebrate, which belongs to the dromaeosaurid species. The dromaeosaurid has long been considered to be a non-avian theropod. This discovery was made by Xu Xing and his colleges who are referred to as the Jehol Group. The Microraptor is a small dinosaur, with a length of only roughly 30.3 inches. It has a long tail and contains approximately 26 vertebrate, which is actually a relatively small number. A characteristic that makes the Microraptor different from other dromaeosaurids is that its sternum is a single flat plate rather than two unfused plates. The Microraptor's trunk length is relatively short, but it nevertheless makes up about 50% of the hind limb length. The Microraptor is considered a Dromaeosauridae because of its siz... ...es in the future. Work Cited â€Å"Amazing New Feathered Dinosaur Found In China† Dinohunters.com 26 April 2001. 31 March 2004. . Hecht Jeff. â€Å"Micro-raptor† Newscientist.com 06 December 2000. 31 March 2004. . Padian Kevin. â€Å"Four-winged dinosaurs, bird precursors, or neither?† Bioscience May 2003. 31 March 2004. . Xing Xu, Zhonghe Zhou, Xiaolin Wang, Xuewen Kuang, Fucheng Zhang and Xiangke Du. â€Å"Four-winged dinosaurs from China† Nature 23 January 2003. 31 March 2004. .

Employment-At-Will Case Essay

Case Example A: Elaine has sued Jerry because Jerry fired her. Elaine was on the job for two months.The job offer letter that Jerry had sent her mentioned the great career opportunities at the company and stated that her annual salary would be $30,000. The company is an employment†at†will employer. Elaine was given no reason for the termination. After the termination, Jerry hired a man named Kramer, who had less job experience and education than Elaine, for the position. Elaine has sued to get her job back. There are legal issues in case example A. These issues will need to be brought up and answered before any decision can be made over this case. A letter was sent to Elaine. Could this be considered a contract? If not, was there a contract involved? If there was a contract involved, is it an executory contract or is it not valid at all? This is an employment-at-will employer, does the employer really need to give a reason for the termination? Ethics in business play a big role in today’s society. Could ethics have been violated by the employer? Is this discrimination against Elaine? Did the employer lower Elaine in to this business with lies to gain something from her? Is this an intentional misrepresentation or fraud? Did Elaine have a certain skill that the employer needed and after the employer got what he needed he fired her? These are short legal questions that will need to be further studied. Elaine’s argument contains legal rules to support her claim. There is printed evidence that can definitely help out Elaine. The job offer letter states that there are great CAREER opportunities at the company. A career is defined as more than a simple job. It is a major part of a person’s life. A job usually last a couple of months. A career is thought of lasting for more than a couple of years. The fact that the term â€Å"career† was used in the letter, it is assumed that this is going to be something more than just a â€Å"job† Another word that was used is annual. The annual salary was said to be $30,000. The term â€Å"annual† also implies that the career that the employer is offering is something that is  long term and not just a two month job. The plaintiff can argue that these were the conditions that were used when she was hired. She sought out this job because she was offered great career opportunities but was never given the â€Å"career† or the opportunity to make $30,000 annually. This could be classified under intentional misrepresentation or fraud because the plaintiff was brought into the business with false statements. Something else that Elaine can argue is that she was discriminated. After she was fired, she was replaced by a man that had less job experience and a lower education than Elaine. Elaine might have been let go because of her sex. This could be a violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The defendant also has a valid argument that he can dispute. This business is an employment at will employer. This means that the employee can be let go at any time for any reason. Elaine knew that this was an employment at will. When she read the letter and accepted the job, she also accepted all the conditions that came along with it. The plaintiff knew that she could be fired any time. This is the defendant’s argument. Based on facts and legal laws, the judge can look over the evidence and rules and make a decision. The employment-at-will doctrine clearly states that the employer can fire the employee at any time for any reason. There are many exceptions to the employment-at-will doctrine. In this case, the tort exception and statutory exception can be applied in favor of the plaintiff. The tort exception states that the employee can sue an employer for fraud. Based on the letter Elaine received, she never was given what she was promised. The employer gave the future employee false statements regarding receiving $30,000 annually. The employer also made the employee believe that this was a career when it clearly lasted no more than two months. This is classified under fraud. The statutory exception will be the main exception in this case. The statutory exception states that â€Å"Title VII and other federal state antidiscrimination laws prohibit employers from engaging in race, sex, religious, age, handicap, or other forms of discrimination†. Right after Elaine was fired, a man was hired for that same position with less work experience and a lower education. This is evidence that Elaine was discriminated based on her sex. An employee who was wrongfully discharged can sue the employer for damages. Therefore the plaintiff will win the case. The legal rules that currently apply are fair and reasonable.  Employment-at-will employers exist because in some jobs, the employer needs that flexibility in order to respond to any changes or needs. Sometimes it is necessary to let employees go but the employer should never forget the laws of business and also ethics. Also, adding exceptions like statutory exception and tort exception to this doctrine helps protect employees in case they are ever treated unfair or are ever taken advantage by their employer. The rules that are currently set for now are fair and reasonable and should not be violated. Work Cited Cheeseman, H. R. The legal environment of business and online commerce. (Custom ed.).

Vitamin C

Research Question: How the amount of vitamin C in fruit juices affects its freshness and till what extent is the information provided on the pack by manufacturers is reliable? Background Information: Hypothesis: -fresh juices have more vitamin C than long-life juice that is ‘not from concentrate’ is best in terms of vitamin content -if heat destroys vitamin C then heat-treated long-life juices will have lower concentrations -if heat destroys vitamin C then boiled fruit juice will have lower concentrations than unboiled -manufacturers generally provide reliable information about their products -the amount of vitamin C content in given fruits is: So the amount of vitamin C and its percentage in fruit juice must go with the given ratio which means that guava and apple juice should have the highest and lowest concentration respectively. Variables: Independent: {text:list-item} Dependent: {text:list-item} Controlled: Materials Required: 6 test tubes, 50 cm3 burette, 10cm3 pipette, 1cm3 pipette, 3 small beakers, DCPIP solution, 0. 1% ascorbic acid, distilled water, 4 varieties of fruit juice, for example mango, grape, apple, guava etc. Preparation Take a properly washed beaker and make 0. 1% solution of vitamin C or ascorbic acid with 0. 1 g of vitamin C in 100 cm3; this is 10 mg cm-3 or one may also use a readily prepared 0. 1%ascorbic acid. Take a 0. 1% solution of DCPIP. Take 6 test tubes and label them as A, B, C, D, E and F. Now slowly pipette out 1cm3 of DCPIP solution into each test tube using a 1 cm3 pipette. Take 5cm3 of the 0. 1%ascorbic acid using a 10cm3 pipette. Using a graduated pipette or a burette, add 0. 1% ascorbic acid drop by drop to the DCPIP solution. Shake the tube gently after adding each drop. Add the acid solution until the blue colour of the final drop does not disappear. Record the exact amount of ascorbic acid that was added. Similarly in test tube B add the same volume of distilled water and gently shake the test tube to observe the change in colour. Investigation Dilute all the juices, that is, mango juice in C, grape juice in D, apple juice in E and guava juice in F before testing because fruit juices have a strong colour that will interfere with determining the end point. Now keep adding mango juice drop by drop with the help of a 50 cm3 burette in test tube C containing DCPIP solution and gently shake the test tube until the DCPIP solution is decolourised. Repeat the same for other 3 fruit juices, that is, grape, apple and guava. Uncertainties and errors Uncertainty or error while preparing ascorbic acid = Uncertainty of solid vitamin C + uncertainty of water = 0. 01+ 0. 1 = 0. 101 Uncertainty while making the mixture of DCPIP and vitamin C = uncertainty of DCPIP(1cm3 pipette) + uncertainty of ascorbic acid (10cm3 pipette) = 0. 01 + 0. 101 = 0. 111 Uncertainty while making the mixture of DCPIP and fruit juices = Uncertainty of DCPIP(pipette) + uncertainty of fruit juices(burette) = 0. 01 + 0. 1 = 0. 11 Data Volume of ascorbic acid added to decolourise DCPIP = 2. 25(+ 0. 1) cm3 Table 1 Calculating concentration of ascorbic acid Data processing Concentration of ascorbic acid in fruit juice (%) = Volume of ascorbic acid added to DCPIP x 0. Volume of fruit juice added to DCPIP Uncertainty = uncertainty in the volume of ascorbic acid + uncertainty in the volume of fruit juice = 0. 111 + 0. 11 = 0. 221 Concentration of ascorbic acid in mango juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 02% 11 Concentration of ascorbic acid in grape juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 01% 16 Concentration of ascorbic acid in apple juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 006% 36 Concentration of ascorbic acid in guava juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 04% 5 Table 2 comparing the experimental value with the given value on the pack Vitamin C An experiment to investigate the enzyme concentration and rate of reaction Background To carry out our experiment we used 3 different types of orange juices, and we also used 0. 1% of vitamin C solution. The aim of our experiment was to see how much DCPIP was needed to be added to make the orange juices turn back to the orange colour and the DCPIP to decolourise once the 0. 1% of vitamin C was added. DCPIP is a blue dye in its non-reduced form; it becomes colourless when it gains electrons.Vitamin C is an anti – oxidant, this is found mainly in fresh fruit and vegetables. The main use of Vitamin C is that it neutralises free radicals, which can cause damage to cells, including cells in the cardiovascular system Planning My aim in this experiment is to investigate how much juice is required to decolourise 1cm3 of 0. 1%of DCPIP solution. Prediction Before I started the investigation I made sure I did a hypothesis so that I would be able to refer back to it in the conclusion at t he end.Below is my hypothesis: My hypothesis is that: ‘there will be less’ Don Simon’ juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP, the other juices will require more juice to decolourise the DCPIP’ Fair Test I will have to make sure that I will be carrying out a fair test. This is to ensure that anything affecting the amount needed to decolourise the DCPIP is due to what I have changed (independent variable) and nothing else. Below I have listed the independent variables as well as those factors which should be kept the same. Independent Variable: * The Juices * Amount of Juice added to the DCPIPDependent Variable: * The amount of DCPIP put in the test tube * 1% of DCPIP * 0. 1% of vitamin C solution Fixed Variables: * The volume of DCPIP poured into the test tube * Keeping a fixed volume of the DCPIP ensures that the decolourisation of the DCPIP is only because of the amount of juice added and not the different amount of DCPIP that is present * Concentration of DCPIP solution * Different concentrations can affect how long it takes to decolourise, therefore it is important that there is nothing else making it less concentrated. * Concentration of Vitamin C solution The concentration of this can affect how much DCPIP is needed to make it colourless The experiment should also be repeated a number of time from which an average will be calculated. This is to ensure that the results are accurate and reliable. The method The method we used to carry out this experiment and the equipment we used is shown below; I also included any faults with the method when we carried out the experiment this is all shown below: Equipment and chemicals needed: * 1% of DCPIP solution * 0. 1% vitamin C solution * A range of fruit juices * Test tubes * Test tube rack Syringe STAGE| PROCEDURE| PURPOSE| ANY FAULTS/LIMITATIONS? | 1| Pipette 1cm3 of 1% DCPIP solution into the test tubes| Provide a clear sight into the experiment at hand. Therefore it makes it easier to e stablish the decolourisation of the DCPIP. | N/A| 2| Using a pipette or burette, add 0. 1% vitamin C solution drop by drop to the DCPIP solution. After adding the drops shake the tube gently | Allows the solution to react with the vitamin C. And therefore resulting in more accurate results| Using a burette would have been more accurate. Also doing the experiment on a bigger cale would also allow any room for accuracy for the results collected| 3| Continue to add drops of the vitamin C solution until the blue colour of the DCPIP has disappeared. | Measure how much vitamin C solution was needed to decolourise the DCPIP| At this point we made sure that the solution was absolutely colourless which was correct, however later we did not do the same thing for the orange juices and therefore we were not able to collect accurate results. | 4| Record the exact amount of the vitamin C solution that was added to decolourise the DCPIP solution.Repeat the procedure and average result| To calculat e how near our value is to the actual value of vitamin C in the other orange juices. | We did not decolourise the DCPIP, when adding the orange juices. As we had done for the vitamin C solution | 5| Repeat this procedure with the fruit juices provided. If only one or two drops of the fruit juices decolourises the DCPIP, dilute the juice and repeat the test. | To obtain an average to measure whether our results match the fact that there is meant to be 100mg of vitamin C in the juices. At this point we would get the result of the vitamin C and one of the juice means and divide them two and times it by a 100 to see how are results are, if it is close to the actual number it will mean it is reliable and accurate, however if it is not near the number it means that it is not very accurate. | Limitation of the apparatus and method Throughout the experiment I felt that there were many things that could have been improved on, so if I were to do the investigation with the modifications, I wou ld get the correct and accurate results.Firstly the syringes that we were using to measure the liquids were not very accurate because, it did not have the lines between the whole numbers, therefore forcing us to guess the amount that was needed. A more precise piece of equipment would be needed instead such as a burette, if this experiment was done on a larger scale this would be more efficient, and accurate. Another limitation with the experiment was that there was not enough DCPIP, thus limiting the amount of repeats being done. If more repeats were done, we would be able to take out the anomalies and be able to acquire a more accurate result.Therefore, decreasing the range of the range bars. From the graph we can see that the range bars are fairly big, therefore to decrease this we would have to do more repeats which would decrease the range of the range bars The most difficult part of the experiment was detecting the change in colour of the DCPIP solution while performing the ti tration. Two of the juices showed clear disappearance of the colour, while the others had the tint of yellow due to some other compounds of colours present. The date of manufacture may be different which may change the nutrient content or concentration in different juices.There were many limitations to the method as well, the main limitation was the fact that the method was not well explained; we added too much vitamin C to the DCPIP, making the DCPIP absolutely colourless. However we should have stopped adding the DCPI when the DCPIP had stopped turning blue. This would have given us a result of around 0. 8 but from the results we can see that the results went up till 2. 4. A modification that could be made to this method, is to include more detail of how to do it, and what it should look like, this would increase the likelihood of the results to be more accurate. ResultsBelow is the results collected by are class. Trends & Patterns From the results table we can see that the values of the 0. 1% vitamin C solution had a large range of results. Therefore this emphasises that the results were not very accurate. For this part of the experiment we had to decolourise the DCPIP in the test tube by adding the vitamin C to it. This in itself was not very accurate, because people’s perception of colourless was different to others. Therefore, it is evident that, from the first step many people’s results were different for the other orange juices, the range of the results were within 0. cm3. The overall mean show us that there was a lot of Asda concentrated orange juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP. This shows that the amount of vitamin C in that volume of the juice was the same amount of what was in the 1. 35mg of the Don Simon orange juice. After collecting all the results and finding the means of all juices, I was able to construct a bar graph. A bar graph was drawn as the variable along the x axis could not expressed in the term of numbers, therefore a line graph was not suitable for this which left us with either drawing a histogram or a bar graph.Personally I chose the bar graph as it was easier to construct and also easier to understand. I also included range bars to show the highest and the lowest values that we had got from the repeats that were done, this also shows that the value that was plotted using the bar, is the average of the range of values for the one liquid. From the graph we can evaluate that the mean concentration of vitamin C/mg cm-3 was ‘Asda from concentrated’ juice, the next juice that was after that was the ‘Asda pure’ juice, lastly leaving the ‘Don Simon’ juice at the end.This means that the Vitamin C present in the 1. 35mg is the same in the other juices for example, it has the same amount of Vitamin C in the Asda Pure juice which has 1. 48mg required to decolourise the DCPIP My hypothesis, ‘there will be less ‘Don Simon’ juice needed to decolou rise the DCPIP, and that the other juices will require more juice to decolourise the DCPIP’ was correct. I predicted this as ‘Don Simon’ juices was seen as a better quality juice than the others, therefore I thought that a better quality juice would have more vitamin C in a small volume.Other juices will have the same amount of vitamin C in a larger volume of juice. Systematic/Random errors In our experiment there were a number of errors caused, for example in the methodology, we had made the colours of juices different to the vitamin C. This was one of the biggest mistakes in the experiment as it affected the whole experiment. If we were to make the juices more clear, when it was being added to the DCPIP, then we may have got more accurate results. As this is what we did, when we were adding the Vitamin C solution to the DCPIP.A systematic error is a problem that you can't overcome because it's a problem with the experiment itself. For instance, if you're measur ing a colour change in a reaction, you have to rely on your eyes, there's a systematic error there because your eyes are not as accurate as a machine. A systematic error that was made was the fact when we were trying to make the DCPIP colourless, people’s perception of colourless was different, and therefore the results that had been acquired by the rest of the class were different. This is one of the reasons there was a big range of results for the decolourisation of the DCPIP.Another possible error in this experiment that could be made is the fact that the person may have read the volume at the wrong place each time. Random errors in experimental measurements are caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur in the measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions. A random error made was the fact that the syringes were not the same. In the way that they were measured differently, sometimes they were not big enough to carry th e amount of orange juice we needed to decolourise.An effective and more accurate equipment we could have used is a burette, as it can hold up to 40cm3 of liquid, and therefore we would have more than enough space to read the reading and to use the juice at once. Another random error that could have been made is that the vitamin C may have not been added by less than a drop a time, so sometimes the next drop may be too little or too big, which may change the colour of the solution more quicker therefore the volume will not be very accurate.Lastly the end point may be misjudged, as it is quite tricky to say exactly when the DCPIP has become colourless. In conclusion, there were many small mistakes made during the experiment, if I was to do this experiment again, I would make sure that I was to do all the repeats myself, so the mistake about people’s perception of what was decolourised would not affect the results. Also the fact that there would be enough equipment would mean th at I would also get the results I need, and that there can be a different piece of equipment used for each of the different experiments. Interpretation of resultsOverall the quality of my data is shown to be fairly accurate as most of the results I got were fairly close, in our class for the juices, however for the vitamin C; the results were not so accurate. This emphasises that there were a number of mistakes which could have caused this problem. There are many factors which affect the result such as, the temperature, pressure, and the equipment used etc. in the investigation I think the main mistake that was made was that we did not stop adding the Vitamin C solution to the DCPIP when it stopped going blue, therefore the value should have been at around 0. instead of the class average which was about 1. 7. We overestimated the amount of Vitamin C that should have been added into the solution of DCPIP. However if we had decided to do this we should have added more orange juice to the DCPIP. Therefore to see whether we had accurate results we did a calculation to see the ratio of vitamin C in the actual Juices on the carton to the results of our experiment. The calculation was found by doing the following: Volume of 0. % vitamin C solution required to decolourise 1cm3 of DCPIP cm3Mean volume of juice required to decolourise 1cm3 of DCPIP cm3X 100 Therefore as we know the volume of standard vitamin C solution needed to decolourise a fixed volume of DCPIP, by using simple proportion, we can calculate the amount of vitamin C in the three different types of orange squash. 0. 1% vitamin C solution: In 1. 70cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solution * 1cm3 1mg * 1. 70cm3 1. 70mg Don Simon: In 1. 36cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solution * 1. 70mg 1. 36cm3 * 100ml 125. 0mg Asda from Concentrated: In 1. 85cm3 should be 1. 0mg of 0. 1%vitamin C solution * 1. 70mg 1. 85cm3 * 100ml91. 9mg Asda Pure: In 1. 48cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solut ion * 1. 70mg1. 48cm3 * 100ml 114. 9mg 0. 1% vitamin C solution: In 1. 70cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solution * 1cm3 1mg * 1. 70cm3 1. 70mg Don Simon: In 1. 36cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solution * 1. 70mg 1. 36cm3 * 100ml 125. 0mg Asda from Concentrated: In 1. 85cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1%vitamin C solution * 1. 70mg 1. 85cm3 * 100ml91. 9mg Asda Pure: In 1. 48cm3 should be 1. 70mg of 0. 1% vitamin C solution * 1. 70mg1. 48cm3 * 100ml 114. mg To find whether our results were accurate, I found out how much vitamin C was present in each of the solutions, this is shown in the box below: From the calculations above, we can see that the results collected from the class were not very accurate. This is shown through the fact that it says that in the Asda Pure juices of 100ml there should be 114. 9mg of vitamin C when there should be 100mg of vitamin C in a 100ml of the juice. Conclusion & Evaluation My prediction, ‘there will be less’ Don Simonâ₠¬â„¢ juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP, the other juices will require more juice to decolourise the DCPIP’ was correct.This is because; the smaller volume of fruit juice needed to decolourise the blue DCPIP solution, the higher is the Vitamin C content in the fruit. It is also shown on the graph, as there is less volume of Don Simon Orange juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP. This means that in 1. 35cm3 of Don Simon, there is the same amount of Vitamin C in 1. 48cm3 of the Asda Pure orange juice, and in 1. 85cm3 of the Asda from concentrated orange juice. The smaller volume of orange juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP solution means that the DCPIP solution is reduced at a faster rate.Within my results, I did find quite a number of anomalies. However there were other numbers within the range of the anomaly such as in the 0. 1% vitamin C solution had the highest value of being 2. 4 cm3, which at first I had thought to be an anomaly, however 2. 1 cm3 was also another re sult that had been collected. However if we took out the 2 repeats, there was also another repeat of 2cm3. Therefore in the end I left the results in the results table. 0. 8cm3 was also another repeat I had though was an anomaly; however there were also other results that were near 0. 8 cm3 such as 1. cm3. Therefore I did not record these results as anomalies. The main reason for the high range was because of the fact that people had different perceptions of when the solution was to go colourless. 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Also I would make sure that there was enough DCPIP for my experiments as I know in my experiment there was not enough DCPIP for some people to do another repeat.The most repeats a group was able to do were 2. Another factor I would change if I were to do the investigation again is that I would use other brands of orange juices as well to widen the results I was going to get. In conclusion, the investigation has stated that there will be less’ Don Simon’ juice needed to decolourise the DCPIP, the other juices will require more juice to decolourise the DCPIP. This is shown on the bar graph with the mean volume of the different t ypes of juices needed to decolourise the DCPIP against the different types of juices.There is also range bars included to inform the highest and lowest values obtained from the repeats. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Edexcel AS Biology Revision Guide for SNAB and concept-led approaches -EDEXCEL, Published: 2008 [ 2 ]. Edexcel AS Biology Revision Guide for SNAB and concept-led approaches – EDEXCEL [ 3 ]. AS-level Biology-Exam Board: Edexcel-complete revision & practice, Published: by CGP in 2008 [ 4 ]. Edexcel AS Biology Revision Guide for SNAB and concept-led approaches -EDEXCEL Vitamin C Research Question: How the amount of vitamin C in fruit juices affects its freshness and till what extent is the information provided on the pack by manufacturers is reliable? Background Information: Hypothesis: -fresh juices have more vitamin C than long-life juice that is ‘not from concentrate’ is best in terms of vitamin content -if heat destroys vitamin C then heat-treated long-life juices will have lower concentrations -if heat destroys vitamin C then boiled fruit juice will have lower concentrations than unboiled -manufacturers generally provide reliable information about their products -the amount of vitamin C content in given fruits is: So the amount of vitamin C and its percentage in fruit juice must go with the given ratio which means that guava and apple juice should have the highest and lowest concentration respectively. Variables: Independent: {text:list-item} Dependent: {text:list-item} Controlled: Materials Required: 6 test tubes, 50 cm3 burette, 10cm3 pipette, 1cm3 pipette, 3 small beakers, DCPIP solution, 0. 1% ascorbic acid, distilled water, 4 varieties of fruit juice, for example mango, grape, apple, guava etc. Preparation Take a properly washed beaker and make 0. 1% solution of vitamin C or ascorbic acid with 0. 1 g of vitamin C in 100 cm3; this is 10 mg cm-3 or one may also use a readily prepared 0. 1%ascorbic acid. Take a 0. 1% solution of DCPIP. Take 6 test tubes and label them as A, B, C, D, E and F. Now slowly pipette out 1cm3 of DCPIP solution into each test tube using a 1 cm3 pipette. Take 5cm3 of the 0. 1%ascorbic acid using a 10cm3 pipette. Using a graduated pipette or a burette, add 0. 1% ascorbic acid drop by drop to the DCPIP solution. Shake the tube gently after adding each drop. Add the acid solution until the blue colour of the final drop does not disappear. Record the exact amount of ascorbic acid that was added. Similarly in test tube B add the same volume of distilled water and gently shake the test tube to observe the change in colour. Investigation Dilute all the juices, that is, mango juice in C, grape juice in D, apple juice in E and guava juice in F before testing because fruit juices have a strong colour that will interfere with determining the end point. Now keep adding mango juice drop by drop with the help of a 50 cm3 burette in test tube C containing DCPIP solution and gently shake the test tube until the DCPIP solution is decolourised. Repeat the same for other 3 fruit juices, that is, grape, apple and guava. Uncertainties and errors Uncertainty or error while preparing ascorbic acid = Uncertainty of solid vitamin C + uncertainty of water = 0. 01+ 0. 1 = 0. 101 Uncertainty while making the mixture of DCPIP and vitamin C = uncertainty of DCPIP(1cm3 pipette) + uncertainty of ascorbic acid (10cm3 pipette) = 0. 01 + 0. 101 = 0. 111 Uncertainty while making the mixture of DCPIP and fruit juices = Uncertainty of DCPIP(pipette) + uncertainty of fruit juices(burette) = 0. 01 + 0. 1 = 0. 11 Data Volume of ascorbic acid added to decolourise DCPIP = 2. 25(+ 0. 1) cm3 Table 1 Calculating concentration of ascorbic acid Data processing Concentration of ascorbic acid in fruit juice (%) = Volume of ascorbic acid added to DCPIP x 0. Volume of fruit juice added to DCPIP Uncertainty = uncertainty in the volume of ascorbic acid + uncertainty in the volume of fruit juice = 0. 111 + 0. 11 = 0. 221 Concentration of ascorbic acid in mango juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 02% 11 Concentration of ascorbic acid in grape juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 01% 16 Concentration of ascorbic acid in apple juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 006% 36 Concentration of ascorbic acid in guava juice = 2. 25 x 0. 1 = 0. 04% 5 Table 2 comparing the experimental value with the given value on the pack

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Attica Correctional Facility - Research Paper Example The Attica Correctional Facility maintains a large industrial operation producing a variety of textile items and metal products. There is also a large program of vocational and academic education. In addition, it maintains extensive programs in family service, mental health and youth assistance. Authors of the Prison Monitoring Report: Attica also stated that they were left with both positive and negative impressions about the facility. While some programs provide beneficial and productive opportunities for inmates to gain skills and confront difficult challenges, they were struck by a widespread sense of fear and intimidation among the inmates. Reports of staff physically abusing inmates and retaliation by officers against inmates who file complains about staff were extensive. Although inmates had positive impressions about Superintendent James Conway and his administration, they reported that he was unable to halt the pervasive violence and abuse by the officers. The four-day riot at the Attica Correctional Facility was reported by History.com as the bloodiest prison insurrection in US History. It was reported that on September 9, 1971 a group of inmates at the facility assaulted a prison guard and began rioting. They took prison employees hostage and gained control of portions of the facility. After which, negotiations between inmates and prison officials followed. The inmates demanded better living conditions at the overcrowded prison. However, an article on the American Express website reported some events essential to validating the purpose of the riot. It reported that inmates who were predominantly African American and Puerto Ricans were incensed at the deteriorating living conditions-among them, the fact that they were only allowed to shower once per week and were allowed one roll of toilet paper per month. Overcrowding had also

Female Circumcision Essay Example for Free

Female Circumcision Essay Many women in different parts of the world have faced circumcision, commonly known as Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). Africa is a continent that has extensively reported cases of FGM, and other parts of the world that practices some indigenous culture, especially the Muslim dominated Middle East countries. The age at which a woman undergoes FGM varies from one region to another, such that a child after being born could be subjected to FGM , while in other areas, a woman who gets her first born is made to undergo the practice. The communities that practice this custom hold high regards for the practice as it demonstrates transition period to womanhood. Therefore, this practice is made to ensure that a circumcised girl is taught the practices that would lead her to being a good wife and mother (IRIN, 2009a). One commonality among the different members of the community who practice FGM is that the major aim is to make a woman remain a virgin until her marriage time, since the removal of her genitalia reduces her sexual desires. In most of the communities carrying out this practice, men prefer to marry circumcised women, meaning the parents have to make their daughters marriageable by circumcising them. Therefore, it can be argued that it is the men who make this practice to prosper. On the other hand, it is the role of the elder women, (mothers and grandmothers) to organize for the circumcision of the young girl, and in some areas, midwives undertakes this role (IRIN, 2009a). This research paper will thus look at how FGM has been practiced in Kenya and the fight against the practice among some communities that hold high regards for the practice. FGM in Kenya Despite laws being put in place to fight FGM, especially the Child’s protection Act of 2001, this practice is still very common and continues to be practiced in various parts of Kenya (IRIN, 2009b). Even though there are many organizations in the country to educate the communities on the dangers of the practice, still the practice has not been stopped and to some extends being practiced underground. However, there have been increased campaigns by various bodies together with the law enforcement agents to see that the practice comes to an end. Kenyan women are circumcised as a rite to passage into womanhood. Many girls in Kenya who come from the communities that practice FGM do not continue with their education. This is because the moment a girl undergoes this practice, she is deemed to be fit and ready to get married. It is because of this that there are several communities that have as young as between twelve and fourteen years getting married to very old men so long as the men are able to pay bride price. It has turned out that men are using their daughters to get wealth through bride price paid; hence a girl circumcised is worth more price than uncircumcised girl. Because of this attachment, some girls are found to voluntarily undertake the practice since it is presumed to increase a woman’s respect (IRIN, 2009b). Maasai is one of the indigenous communities in Kenya that have strongly held to the FGM practice. There are many people from the community (both men and women) who are highly educated, but are afraid to talk openly against the vice in the community because of the fear of social repercussion, especially for leaders who want to get elective posts like in politics. Community members believe that one cannot be a true Maasai if they are not circumcised. Among the Maasai, FGM is considered to bring honor to the circumcised and her family. This is because such a girl is eligible for marriage, which raises her status and the family in general. There have been increased criticism from the international community against the Maasai practice, but the community hangs on the practice, despite the government of Kenya criminalizing FGM. The Maasai community does not hold any regards for uncircumcised woman in the society no matter her level of education or even the post she holds in the society. It is even amazing to find that some male candidates in Kenyan politics use the issue of FGM against women who are not circumcised claiming they are not fit to be in public offices. Such issues make fighting FGM to be a very difficult task (IRIN, 2009b). Even though there are many hardliners who have stood in the way of fighting FGM, the efforts of those fighting the practice has started to bear fruits in Kenya, and especially among the Maasai communities. There are some aspects that are associated with FGM that the community has slowly been changing. For instance, the practice involved the use of one knife for circumcising various girls. But because of the teachings concerning HIV/Aids, the circumcisers have been convinced that it is dangerous to be using a single knife for several people, and have thus started using a single knife for each girl. There are only a few circumcisers who still use one knife for different girls, according to a survey done by Maendeleo Ya Wanawake (MYWO), a women organization that has been at the forefront campaigning against FGM in Kenya. Although this change appears, slight, it is a show in the right direction that the Maasai community can be convinced to change unnecessary and harmful cultural practices to the better course of the society at large (IRIN, 2009b). There are various measures that have been put in place by the organizations fighting the FGM practice in Kenya to see that this practice comes to an end. One mode has been the introduction of the alternative rites of passage. In this practice, all the activities, teachings and practices that the girls are undertaken during the circumcision period are taught to the girls who are of age to be circumcised, but excluding the practice of cutting their genitalia. MYWO has held these alternative rites passage practice yearly among different communities in Kenya. In these activities, girls are taught traditional methods of becoming a good woman, while other formal education programs are again incorporated into the teachings. There are many communities that have adopted this system of alternative rites of passage, but among the Maasai communities, it has been received with a lot of mixed reactions, thus only causing limited success. The concern and the major reason for the Maasai and other communities to practice FGM is basically to reduce sexual urge among the girls, so that they can remain pure until their marriage time , and once married, be faithful to their husbands. This concern does not seem to be raised in the case of using alternative rites of passage (IRIN, 2009b). Religious leaders have also of late been at the forefront in the fight against FGM practice. Muslim dominated region of North Eastern Kenya has been also known to have high percentage of female circumcision. However, of late, the Muslim religious leaders have taken up the initiative to teach their followers of the importance of doing away with FGM practices. The religious leaders campaigns mostly on Fridays when they offer the religious teachings. The leaders have played a major role in informing the women that FGM is not an Islamic requirement, hence has to be abandoned. The council of Imams and other Muslim religious leaders has chosen to be undertaking their campaigns on Fridays because it is the time many Muslims gather together as community for their prayers. This is also considered a cheap approach of reaching many people, than having to undertake expensive workshops in hotels (IRIN, 2007). Like the Maasai, the campaigns in the North Eastern Kenya have received mixed reactions among the community members. There are those who feel that the practice should be stopped, while others feel that the practice is aimed at protecting the girls, hence it has to be preserved at all costs. Many girls in the North Eastern region of Kenya lead miserable lives since they are forced to get married immediately they are circumcised, and they do also have poor lives to lead in their marriage, since they face problems like divorce, for not satisfying their husbands sexually and birth related problems associated with FGM practice (IRIN, 2007). Conclusion Kenyan government made FGM an illegal offence when it passed the child’s protection Act of 2001, but due lack of enforcement of the law by prosecuting the those who carry out the practice, FGM has continued among different communities like the Maasai who hold a lot of regards to their rituals, hence living according to the traditional rules and refuse to embrace modernization. Nevertheless, with the increased activities of the outside world within the communities practicing FGM, their influence is slowly changing the perspective of the community especially among the younger educated generation who do not want their daughters to undergo the practice like themselves or their wives. Therefore, this practice is bound to come to an end, but it will take time to change the minds of the indigenous people. Reference: IRIN (2007). KENYA: Religious leaders join anti-FGM fight, retrieved on 25th February 2009 from, http://www. globalexchange. org/countries/africa/kenya/4648. html. IRIN (2009a). In-Depth: Razors Edge The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation. AFRICA: When culture harms the girls the globalisation of female genital mutilation, retrieved on 25th February 2009 from http://www. irinnews. org/IndepthMain. aspx? IndepthId=15ReportId=62462. IRIN (2009b). In-Depth: Razors Edge The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation. KENYA: FGM among the Maasai community of Kenya, retrieved on 25th February 2009 from http://www. irinnews. org/InDepthMain. aspx? InDepthId=15ReportId=62470Country=Yes.

Law Essays Modes Of Trial

Law Essays Modes Of Trial Modes Of Trial If you were being prosecuted for a criminal offence, which of the following modes of trial would you prefer: Trial by lay magistrates; Trial by professional judge alone; or Trial by judge and jury. When being prosecuted for a criminal offence, a large portion of the final outcome rests on what court tires the case due to the varying procedural and sentencing allowances attributed to each court. The Magistrates Court is classically more informal, probably a reflection of the fact that it deals with 95% of all criminal cases, while the Crown Court, having greater sentencing power, trying by Judge and/or jury, suffers a far more formal procedural policy. In order to adequately determine which mode of trial a defendant would be best to chose, an examination of criminal procedure in the courts of the UK should follow. It should also be noted that the choice is not always available or always clear-cut. A lot of factors, especially the nature of the crime effect, the choice to be made. It is often a question of weighing up what-ifs. All criminal cases concerning persons over the age of 18, therefore legal adults, start in the Magistrates Court, reached by either having a summons or complaint by laying of an information made against you, or following a charge at the police station. The Magistrates Court is made up of either 3 lay magistrates known as justices, or a full-time District Judge (only in criminal matters) who sits alone. The court, when in session by the magistrates, is assisted by a magistrates clerk, one function of which is to assist the lay magistrates by advising on areas of law, as a lay magistrate is only able to judge on fact, knowing no law. A District Judge is a properly qualified solicitor or barrister who sits either as a full time or part time District Judge at the magistrates court and is the tribunal of fact and law unlike the magistrates being ordinary members of the public (Murphy et al, 2005). The nature of the offence determines the court in which the case is heard and thereby the mode of trial and other aspects of criminal proceedings such as sentencing and remand (i.e. bail). There are three possible classifications of offences, summary offence, indictable offence and either-way offences, the last being capable of either a summary conviction or an indictable conviction. When a case is heard in the Magistrates Court, it is tried summarily and once a conviction is made, the conviction is a summary conviction, irrespective of whether or not the offence was an either-way offence. On the same note, when a case is heard in the Crown Court, the defendant is tried on indictment and convicted on indictment. With an indictable offence, the defendant initially appears in the magistrates court where the magistrates determine if based on the facts, they are justified in sending the defendant to the Crown Court under s.51 Crime and Disorder Act 1997. This decision is taken at the first hearing where the magistrates will also deal with the defendants remand status and whether funding needs to be arranged for the case (Sanders and Young, 2000). If the offence is a summary only offence, and the defendant pleads guilty, then the magistrates go on to sentence on the same day or a on later date. This renders the process very expedient. If the defendant pleads not guilty then the matter is adjourned to a later date and a pre-trial review occurs to determine the date at which the summary trial will occur. Pleading guilty may go against common intuition in such instances, yet it may stand in the defendants benefit. A repeat offender may realize that he will not have a possibility of getting an acquittal and to quickly obtain judgment by lay magistrates who can only impose limited sentences would hold benefits over a judge who effectively has no limits on sentencing bar the statutory maximum for the crime. Further, lay magistrates are more personable and may consider aspects of the case that under law would not be an issue, such as the socio-economic background of the defendant, the familial situation and further factors which woul d cause a person to potential veer off track. With a straight cut either-way offence, the Magistrates Court or the Crown Court could deal with the defendant. The decision as to which court to elect is often made by considering the plea before venue (s. 17A Magistrates Court Act 1980) and following, the mode of trial (Murphy et al, 2005). This all occurs at a rather early stage in the game, and often adjournment may be necessary to determine what kind of plea should be indicated. The defence will be awaiting Advance Information from the prosecution (Magistrates Court Advance Information Rules 1985), usually consisting of a summary of the case, charge sheet or summons, copies of witness statements, previous convictions and/or transcripts of the defendants interview under caution. Advance Information is supplied in the case of all either-way offences. It allows the defendant to know the case against them when considering their plea, as the plea will also dictate which court they are tried in and in effect what the maximum sentencing they receive will be. There is no obligation on the prosecution to serve Advance Information with a summary only offence yet, common practice dictates that they do so in order to prevent any possible impact that Article 6 of the Human Rights Act 1999 may have on the case (Sanders and Young, 2000). A mode of trial hearing is usually the most important part of the criminal proceeding for the defendant, bar of course the actual trial, as it has the greatest effect on which court the defendant will be tried in. The procedure for a mode of trial hearing is set out in s.19 of the Magistrates Court Act 1980. The court shall listen to both arguments from the prosecution and defence as to which court would be more suitable and would show particular regard to four qualifying factors. The nature of the case and whether the circumstances make the offence one of a serious character. Whether the punishment that the Magistrates Court could impose would be adequate for the offence committed and if there are any other circumstances which appear to the court to make it more suitable for the offence to be tried in one way as opposed to the other. This last factor remains rather vague and all encompassing and is supplemented by the National Mode of Trial Guidelines setting out to a more specific point what the court should consider. The guidelines consist of general observations and guidance specific to individual offences (Murphy et al, 2005). Overall, the guidelines recommend that a case should be tried summarily unless specific factors apply and the sentencing power of the Magistrates Court is insufficient. If the court opts at this point that a summary trial is more suitable, the defendant can elect to be tried summarily or by a jury yet is warned that if he is tried summarily and convicted, the defendant may be committed to the Crown Court if the magistrates believe he requires a sentence which is larger than the punishment they are permitted to inflict. If the defendant elects a trial by jury at the Crown Court a committal proceeding follows. An election for the Magistrates Court may be a wise choice dependent on the nature of the offence. The magistrates have lower sentencing powers than a jury who is only limited by statute as to the sentence imposed for a particular offence. Magistrates sentencing powers are reflected by the number and type of offences being tried for. One or more summary offences will result in a maximum of 6 months imprisonment. One either-way offence will generate a maximum of 6 months imprisonment as will one either-way offence plus one or more summary only offences. However, two or more either-way offences can result in a maximum of 12-months imprisonment (Hungerford-Welch, 2004). The limits on the power of a Magistrates Court are currently changing under s.154 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 (proposed implementation 2005/2006). Under s.154 the Magistrates Court will have the power to impose sentences of no more than 51 weeks for any one either-way offence and no more than 65 for more than one either-way offence. The Home Secretary can amend these limits to a maximum of 18 months and 24 respectively (Murphy et al, 2005). If, at the mode of trial hearing in the Magistrates Court, the court decides the trial should be done on indictment, the defendant is sent to the Crown Court for trial, and there is no choice to be made over the mode of trial (Sanders and Young, 2000). If the defendant elects trial (at the mode of trial hearing) in the Crown Court, he will have to go through a committal proceeding as set out in s.6 of the Magistrates Court Act 1980. This can occur in one of two ways, committal with consideration of evidence (s.6(1) Magistrates Court Act 1980) where evidence against the defendant (written only) is considered and if insufficient the defendant is discharged. This however, does not equate to an acquittal and if new evidence comes to light, the defendant can be charged again. A committal without consideration of the evidence (s.6(2) Magistrates Court Act 1980) is the second option and most commonly used, where all written and oral evidence is considered. The first version is only really used when the defence is convinced there is no case to answer (Murphy et al, 2005). This is another consideration the defendant will keep in mind when deciding by whom to be tried as being let off via a committal proceeding would be beneficial but the po tential of a charge being brought again in light of new evidence is not. Finally, the court has one last method to send the defendant to the Crown Court even if charged with summary offences. Under s.41 of the Criminal Justice Act 1988, the magistrates have the limited power to commit the defendant to the Crown Court in respect of summary offences when the court is committing the defendant for trial for one or more offences triable either-way and he is also charged with a summary offence punishable with imprisonment and/or disqualification from driving and the summary offences arise out of circumstances which appear to the court to be the same as or connected with the circumstances of the (or one of the) offences triable either-way (Murphy et al, 2005). Examining the legal procedural system, it seems the case is not clear-cut as to which decision-maker should be chosen. Further examination of the nature of each body would often also be considered by the perpetrator. Conceptually trial by jury may be favourable. The theory stands that a jury will consist of people similar to the defendant, the peers of the defendant and therefore will be able to apply the norms expected of that social group to the judgment. Further, a judge is often seen as a parental figure imposing the law so stringently that he often loses sight of the human element. With 12 voices coming together and debating on common grounds, the defendant may stand a fairer chance of coming away from the situation free. However, it is not often the case that a jury will be 12 individual voices. Richard Dawkins elucidated this point rather elegantly with a comparison to herring gulls. In his field of animal behaviour, a study was conducted by Niko Tinbergen concerning the colour preference of a herring gull. At birth, herring gull chicks peck at a red point on the yellow beak of their parents, which causes the parent to regurgitate any foods consumed that day. Tinbergen was curious to deter mine if the gulls were born with a pre-disposed colour preference to cause them to react to their environment as they did or if the behaviour was a learned one. Regardless of the results of this particular study, Dawkins points out that the interesting facet, with consideration to the jury structure in the UK, was the observation that when all the chicks were placed together in a pen and left to a make a selection, the group would all chose the same colour. The statistical possibility of 12 individuals making the same selection out of a choice of two is one out of 1024 (Dawkins, 1997). In the same respect, a jury of 12, when left to deliberate together, can all be swayed to follow the group decision which could effectively be made by one person. Someone who is strong enough to make a decision in a group with such vocality that it leads, will often be severely opinionated on an aspect of the case. This may cause the defendant to be futility swimming through a trial with little chance of fairness being applied. The best scenario of course would be to segregate all 12 jurors into separate decision-making chambers and collate the choices made by all 12 but perhaps unintelligent jurors or those who merely do not care will be granted too much power. A judge on the other hand has been educated in the law and is more or less free by holding virtual total discretion. The judge can pass any judgment he sees fit to pass limited only by statutory constraints imposed by the offence (and of course the desire to keep his job, much like the political restraints felt by parliament and their apparent sovereignty). The judge will have a standard against which to measure the case at hand built up through years of experience on the bench. The judge will be able to read a trial and to be aware of small details which would illuminate innocence or guilt which a jury would potentially miss in their naÃÆ'Â ¯vetÃÆ'Â ©. If a defendant were innocent then a trial by judge would be the most desirable mode of trial. Especially with a case in which the offence was rather serious. The law is so formulated that a man is innocent until he is proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt. A judge knows this and may stick more rigorously to the letter of the law t han a jury would who could easily be swayed by prosecution gimmicks such as photos of the crime or statistics of the crime in their neighbourhood. If a defendant, however, were to be guilty of a crime then the choice of a trail by judge and jury may stand in favour of the defendant as the emotional ability of the jury could work in his favour. Ultimately, the defendants personal preference will be a consequence largely on the crime and whether or not it was committed by him, i.e. innocence versus guilt. A judge alone would be a desirable choice for the innocent offenders while a jury would be best for a guilty offender. If the option were available for a trial by lay magistrates, this would be ideal due to their restricted sentencing ability and the assurance that at worst a fine and a maximum 12-month retention would be the result (subject to the new legislation being not yet being implemented). References: Broadbridge, S. (2002). The Criminal Justice Bill: Juries and Mode of Trial, Bill 8 of 2002-03. House of Commons Library, London. Dawkins, Richard (1997). Three herring gull chickthe reason juries dont work. The Observer 1997, London. Hoyle, C. and Young, R. (2003) Restorative Justice and Punishment in S. McConville (ed.) The Use of Punishment, Willan Publishing, Devon. Hungerford-Welch, P. (2004) Criminal Litigation and Sentencing (6th Edition). Cavendish Publishing, London. Murphy, P., Murphy, E. and Stockdale, E. (2005) Blackstones Criminal Practice. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Sanders, A. and Young, R. (2000) Criminal Justice (Second edition). London: Butterworths Young, R. and Sanders, A. (2002) From Suspect to Trial in The Oxford Handbook of Criminology 3rd ed. (eds M Maguire, R Morgan and R Reiner), Oxford: OUP, pp. 1034-1075

Clozapine :: Drugs Science Medical Psychology Essays

Clozapine Clozapine is an atypical anti-psychotic medication that acts as an antagonist (a drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter), thus producing an inhibitory effect, at a variety of neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. The exact site and action by which Clozapine produces its therapeutic effects is difficult to locate due to the complexity of its interactions with several neurotransmitters. It is believed that the two key neurotransmitters that Clozapine interacts with are serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA), particularly at 5-HT2, D2, and D4 receptors (Brenner, H.D., BÃâ€"ker, W., Genner, R., 2001). Serotonin is a biogenic amine derived from tryptophan that generally produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (meaning that it causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell membrane).Functions of serotonin include regulation of sleep and emotions. Dopamine is a monoamine catecholamine derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Receptors that bind dopamine are termed dopaminergic. Dopamine is one of the principal modulatory neurotransmitters in the brain and may have inhibitory or excitatory effects depending upon the response of the postsynaptic receptor (King, www.indstate.edu). Clozapine also has effects at muscarinic M1 receptors, adrenergic receptors, cholinergic receptors, and histamine receptors (Brenner, et al). There are many disputed theories of the biological causes of schizophrenia. One of the most prominent ideas is the "dopamine hypothesis." The dopamine hypothesis attributes hyperdopaminergic function, meaning an excess of dopamine at certain synapses, as a possible cause of schizophrenia (Fann, W.E., Karacan, I., Pokorney, A.D., & Williams, R.L., 1978). Dopamine systems arise from two primary midbrain clusters, the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra which have discrete projections to mesolimbic, mesocortical, and striatal regions of the brain. The neurochemical anatomy of dopamine differs in cortical and striatal regions, and it appears that dopamine concentration, receptor regulation, and D2 receptor density varies greatly between striatal and extrastriatal regions (Jones, & Pilowsky, 2002). It is supposed that the therapeutic actions of antipsychotic drugs are exerted via the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways in the brain (Hyman et. al., 1995). According to the dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia, limbic D2 receptor blockade is essential for a drug to have antipsychotic activity. It is believed that the therapeutic actions of antipsychotic drugs are exerted via the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways in the brain by acting as D2 receptor antagonists (Hyman et al.)Without exception, effective antipsychotic drugs have at least some degree of antagonism of the dopamine D2 receptors. (Breier, A., Tran, P. Clozapine :: Drugs Science Medical Psychology Essays Clozapine Clozapine is an atypical anti-psychotic medication that acts as an antagonist (a drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter), thus producing an inhibitory effect, at a variety of neurotransmitter receptors in the brain. The exact site and action by which Clozapine produces its therapeutic effects is difficult to locate due to the complexity of its interactions with several neurotransmitters. It is believed that the two key neurotransmitters that Clozapine interacts with are serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA), particularly at 5-HT2, D2, and D4 receptors (Brenner, H.D., BÃâ€"ker, W., Genner, R., 2001). Serotonin is a biogenic amine derived from tryptophan that generally produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (meaning that it causes hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic cell membrane).Functions of serotonin include regulation of sleep and emotions. Dopamine is a monoamine catecholamine derived from the amino acid tyrosine. Receptors that bind dopamine are termed dopaminergic. Dopamine is one of the principal modulatory neurotransmitters in the brain and may have inhibitory or excitatory effects depending upon the response of the postsynaptic receptor (King, www.indstate.edu). Clozapine also has effects at muscarinic M1 receptors, adrenergic receptors, cholinergic receptors, and histamine receptors (Brenner, et al). There are many disputed theories of the biological causes of schizophrenia. One of the most prominent ideas is the "dopamine hypothesis." The dopamine hypothesis attributes hyperdopaminergic function, meaning an excess of dopamine at certain synapses, as a possible cause of schizophrenia (Fann, W.E., Karacan, I., Pokorney, A.D., & Williams, R.L., 1978). Dopamine systems arise from two primary midbrain clusters, the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra which have discrete projections to mesolimbic, mesocortical, and striatal regions of the brain. The neurochemical anatomy of dopamine differs in cortical and striatal regions, and it appears that dopamine concentration, receptor regulation, and D2 receptor density varies greatly between striatal and extrastriatal regions (Jones, & Pilowsky, 2002). It is supposed that the therapeutic actions of antipsychotic drugs are exerted via the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways in the brain (Hyman et. al., 1995). According to the dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia, limbic D2 receptor blockade is essential for a drug to have antipsychotic activity. It is believed that the therapeutic actions of antipsychotic drugs are exerted via the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopamine pathways in the brain by acting as D2 receptor antagonists (Hyman et al.)Without exception, effective antipsychotic drugs have at least some degree of antagonism of the dopamine D2 receptors. (Breier, A., Tran, P.